Variability models represent the
common and variable features of products in a product line. Since the introduction
of FODA in 1990, several variability modeling languages have been proposed in
academia and industry, followed by hundreds of research papers on variability
models and modeling. However, little is known about the practical use of such
languages. We study the constructs, semantics, usage, and associated tools of
two variability modeling languages, K config and CDL, which are independently
developed outside academia and used in large and significant software projects.
We analyze 128 variability models found in 12 open--source projects using these
languages. Our study 1) supports variability modeling research with empirical
data on the real-world use of its flagship concepts. However, we 2) also
provide requirements for concepts and mechanisms that are not commonly
considered in academic techniques, and 3) challenge assumptions about size and
complexity of variability models made in academic papers. These results are of
interest to researchers working on variability modeling and analysis techniques
and to designers of tools, such as feature dependency checkers and interactive
product configurations.
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